Electricity and magnetism in ancient Greece
The term " power "derives directly from the Greek word" elektron "(ήλεκτρον) which means the amber , a fossil resin with propertieselectrostatic . Similarly, the term " electromagnetic "refers to the stone of Magnesia , a magnet used from the natural Antiquity (Magnesia is originally a Greek city, now located in the west of Turkey).
These two roots indicate that the effects of electricity and magnetism were discovered early in the history of mankind. The lightning , natural magnetization, the static wool, are phenomena that men learned to know and use.
Among the Greeks, around 600 BC. BC, Thales of Miletus is assigned the authorship of thinking about electricity, specifically on static electricity and magnetism. However, only texts apocryphal evidence of his interest in these phenomena (ie Diogenes Laertius , the iii th century that reports about of Herodotus and Hypias the Greek scholar). According to these texts, Thales seemed give "soul to inanimate things we thought." The tribo was already known but could not be explained other than by a vision animist of matter, its properties physical being then inaccessible.
The use of magnetism in China
In China , the magnetic properties are used by diviners from the II th and i st century BC. BC , to make tables of divination magic . From here derives the first compass that points north, it is perfected after the i st century AD. The compass will be gradually used for the construction and navigation. Moreover, we find in the Tang Dynasty ( 618 - 907 ) the discrepancy between north pole / south magnetic and geographic. Recovered by the Arabs, the compass comes in the West xi th century, it revived the study of magnetism.
The use of electricity produced by living beings
The electricity produced by living beings, particularly electric fish is also known since ancient times. Examples include bas-reliefs ofancient Egypt representing electric catfish . In addition, a mosaic of Pompeii is a common torpedo . Scribonius Largus the reign of Emperor Claude I st (41-54 AD) described a treatment against migraine or against the drop using landfills Power produced by a torpedo.
Experience Luigi Galvani with frog legs in contact with various metals, highlights a new phenomenon that is the starting point of many developments of modern science, in that it provides access to use off the electricity : his discovery of "the animal electricity . "
The xvii th and xviii th centuries: a historic turning point
The xvi th century, William Gilbert , physician to the Queen of England, gives the name of electricity to the phenomenon.
In 1733 , the steward Du Fay , considering the attraction and repulsion of electrified by rubbing body distinguishes positive electricity and negative electricity (electricity resin , electric glass ).
In 1752 , Benjamin Franklin proves that lightning is a phenomenon due to electricity and invented the lightning rod to protect themselves.
In 1785 , Charles Coulomb has a second memory to the Academy of Sciences , in which he explains the law that the electrically charged bodies interact.
Static electricity: first discoveries
Early research on electricity, before the advent of electromagnetism, will focus on theelectrostatic phenomena . With the production of electricity by machine friction can start the first practical experiments. Ramsden and Wimshurst who make the first electrostatic generators , the discovery of the capacitors , the knowledge about the properties chemicals ,heat and light of the electric current is specified.
xix th century and electromagnetism
Developments in electromagnetism
In 1820 , Hans Christian Oersted discovered the relationship between electricity and magnetism one whose laws are described by Andre-Marie Ampere , Michael Faraday , Jean-Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart , and finally shaped by James Clerk Maxwell .
In 1831 , Michael Faraday (1791-1867) discovered electromagnetic induction: the creation of a current in a conductor from a magnetic field.
In 1832 , Hippolyte Pixii , manufacturer of instruments for physics in Paris, made the first electric induction machine including a magnetrotating over the poles of a solenoid fixed. Is a generator of alternating current which provides the current through the switch M. Ampere (two half-rings fixed to the axis for the inversion of the polarity). This is already the beginning of a commutator. Joseph Henry observes the spark occurring at the opening of an electrical circuit and calls this extra current breaking phenomenon. It is the discovery of theself-induction .
In 1833 , Heinrich Lenz (1804-1865), Russian physicist of German origin, establishes the law that gives the direction of the induced current.
In 1865 , James Clerk Maxwell published his treatise on electricity and magnetism, true foundation of electromagnetism modern. The famous " Maxwell's equations "are established.
In 1885 , Galileo Ferraris , Italian engineer, introduced the principle of the rotating field in the construction of electric motors.
The first machines
In 1799 , Alessandro Volta invented the electric battery by stacking alternating discs of different metals ( copper , zinc ) separated by discs of felt soaked in acid .
Peter Barlow (1776-1862) built in 1822 which can be considered the first electric motor of history: " Barlow wheel "which is a simple metal disc cut into star and whose ends dip into a bucket containing mercury which provides the current supply.
Russian Professor Hermann von Jacobi built in1834 an engine power of a horsepower to propel a boat paddle wheel on the Neva in St. Petersburg .The inductor and the armature are electromagnets horseshoe crown carried by a movable and a fixed ring facing one another. The switch called "gyrotropic" reverse the suitable positions excitement moving electromagnets. But this engine is compact and, ultimately, it is the American Thomas Davenport will be the true inventor of this type of machine. We need to Jacobi the term "electromotive force against."
Charles Grafton Page experiencing an auto in 1835 . The same year, Thomas Davenport , a blacksmith in Brandon in Vermont in the United States, built one of the first electric vehicles. The electric motor was probably an engine such as "single-piston locomotive effect".
Charles Grafton Page built in 1838 an induction coil which can be considered the ancestor of the coil Ruhmkorff. Construction of an electric motor similar to the single-acting piston steam engine, the steam being replaced by two electromagnets U.
1840 sees the arrival of the electric motor Jean-Gustave Bourbouze . The pistons of a steam engine are replaced by electromagnets alternately excited through contacts controlled by a drawer "distributor".
Gustave Froment (1815-1865) built the first variable reluctance machine in 1845 . It is a rotary motor having a fixed crown of electromagnets which attract iron bars carried by a wheel.
Heinrich Ruhmkorff develops in 1856 the coil that bears his name based on the work of its predecessors and is a powerful scientific instrument it sells.
Plante (1834-1889) invented in 1859 the accumulator or "reverse battery". The same yearAntonio Pacinotti (1841-1912) develops an electrical machine comprises a steel ring surrounded by a copper wire, " ring Pacinotti . " This is the basis of the electric motor anddynamo .
Antonio Pacinotti published in 1865 , in the n o 19 of the journal Nuovo Cimento , a communication on a rotating magnetic field in a ring. This foreshadowed the invention induces electric machinery that he intends to use both in generating engines. Could not exceed the experimental stage, his achievements remain unanswered.
The Englishman Wilde realized in 1868 the first dynamo or dynamo machine. It replaces the result of the work of Werner von Siemens , the permanent magnet by an electromagnet powered by an auxiliary machine.
In 1869 , the Belgian inventor Zénobe Gram (1826-1901), born in Jehay-Bodegnée (province of Liège ), makes possible the realization of DC generators imagining the collector. It improves early versions archaic alternators ( 1867 ) and became famous in finding the principle of armature ring Pacinotti . In 1871 , he presented to the Academy of Sciences of Paris the first industrial generator of direct current, which is called Gramme machine which was actually a magneto.
Dissemination of electricity
In 1878 , Thomas Alva Edison , American inventor, founded the Edison Electric Light Co. inNew York . The following year, 1879 , he presented his first electric incandescent lamp (with carbon filaments) which remains lit 45 hours. The same year, in Europe, a hydropower station 7 kilowatts is built in St. Moritz . In the years 1880 Aristide Berges promotes the concept of White Coal .
In 1881 , the France organizes, between 1 st August and 15 November , the International Exhibition of Electricity 2 which enshrines the birth of the electrical , highlighted by an International Congress of electricians based in Paris from September 15 to October 19 . The novelty is the use of industrial dynamo Gram .
In late August 1883 , Deprez makes another experience electricity transmission betweenVizille and Grenoble a distance of 14 km in DC to illuminate the hall from the center of Grenoble. The same year, Lucien Gaulard , a chemist by training, has the French Society of electricians a "secondary generator" called for transformer . To the skepticism of his countrymen, he addresses the English John Dixon Gibbs shows in London and the merits of his invention.
In September 1884 , Lucien Gaulard Dixon and John Gibb position themselves for an award at the Turin exhibition and thwart opponents transport AC. They put in service a looped link demonstration ( 133 Hz ) supplied with alternating current at 2,000 volts and making the trip to Turin Lanzo ( 80 km ). Is then finally admitted interest of the transformer, which is capable of raising the voltage delivered by an alternator and thereby facilitates the transmission of electrical energy through power lines. Recognition Gaulard intervene too late because in the meantime, patents were also taken by others. The first patent in 1882 Gaulard has not even been issued at the time, under the pretext that the inventor claimed he could do "something for nothing"! Gaulard attack, lost his trial, he is ruined and ended his days in an insane asylum. Transformer Gaulard 1886 did little to envy the current transformers, the closed magnetic circuit (the prototype of 1884 included an open magnetic circuit, resulting in a poor performance well) consists of a multitude of son of announcing the laminated iron circuitlaminations .
Thus, in 1885 , the Hungarian Károly Zipernowsky , Miksa Déry and Titus Ottó Bláthydevelop a transformer with an annular core marketed worldwide by companies Ganz in Budapest. United States of America, William Stanley also develops processors. The same year Galileo Ferraris , engineer, introduced the principle of the rotating field in the construction of electric motors.
Production and distribution: time engineers
The work of a large number of scientists between 1860 and 1890 led to the development of machines capable of producing electrical energy in large quantities, and the ability to transport over long distances.
International conflicts of the time why it is difficult to attribute to a particular person inventorship: scientists like Nikola Tesla or Lucien Gaulard which we are sure they invented respectively AC machines and the processor (essential elements of production and power transmission) died in poverty, deprived of their patents by other much better financial engineers.
We can consider that the invention of the DC machine , patented by the Belgian Zénobe Gram owes much to the work of the Italian Antonio Pacinotti and German Ernst Werner von Siemens . Improved and marketed in the U.S. by Thomas Edison, his job was defended in Europe by engineers (including Marcel Deprez ) and who had financial interest. Faced with the proponents of the production and transport ac, this powerful lobby did his best to impose DC. Edison, for example, formally discouraged use in town because of a "risk of electric shock by induction "for telephone users.
Lucien is Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs, in 1883 , succeeded the first to carry the electricity over a distance of 40 km with an alternating current generated at a voltage of 2000 volts . The transformer invented by Gaulard, significantly increases the voltage at the expense of the current intensity and thus greatly reduce the losses by Joule effect during transport over long distances.
In 1886 , George Westinghouse , American inventor and industrialist born in Central Bridge (New York), is interested in industrial electricity and founded the Westinghouse Electric Corporation. After obtaining a patent in 1887 for a transformer, he made Buffalo a first AC network for lighting. In the United States, he gets to face the Edison contract installation of all electrical infrastructure. Thus the world is needed for the AC electricity distribution. This invention will help to distribute energy throughout the territory of the developed countries and cause a second industrial revolution . This is the company that developed the first "electric chair" that executes the condemned William Kemmler August 6, 1890. Today the group has become the number two in the U.S. sector of the production of electrical and electronic equipment, behind General Electric.
In 1886 , the city of light Bourganeuf in Creuse is the first in France or in Europe, to inaugurate an electric lighting all the streets of the town with a production site distant places of consumption.
In 1887 , Nikola Tesla , Serbian electronic engineer born in Smiljan in Austro Hungarian Croatia today , founded a company to build generators. Through its work, the AC will win the battle of the transport distance and the use of alternating current. Tesla recommends first using polyphase currents (1882) and managed to create a rotating magnetic field which can lead to a rotating armature rotating. In1891 , the first experience for the transport of large-scale energy is made in Germany. It is the realization of a long line of 175 km between Lauffen-on-Neckar and Frankfurt am Main. And performance has already reached 75%! Imagines in 1890 the first mounting producing high-frequency current. Tesla continued research work. He was responsible for the famous Tesla assembly in the field of radio but it does not, despite other inventions, it eventually also his days in misery. It gave its name to the unit of magnetic induction in the SI system, the tesla (symbol T).
Examination of the state of the art as published in the Dictionary of electricity of R. Lefevre (1895) shows the great creativity of the time on electricity usage, with many applications now disappeared as:
- light electrolysis of the cuvette contents of flush water to give disinfectant properties;
- clothing electric;
- electric lights candles;
- " théâtrophone "in the streets.
Michail Ossipowitsch Doliwo-Dobrowolski , Russian electrician, invented in 1889 the first three-phase asynchronous motor with squirrel-cage (built industrially from 1891). In fact, the induction motor was "in the air". Who was really the inventor? Tesla, Ferraris or Doliwo-Doborwolski? That same year saw the commissioning of the first transmission line AC in the United States: Oregon city - Portland.With a length of 21 km , it feeds into 4 kV.
1890 : Commissioning of the first electric locomotive London Underground.
1891 Germany : first transmission installation phase current (15 kV, 40 Hz ) between a hydropower plant located in Lauffen-on-Neckar and Frankfurt, a distance of 175 km (transmission losses of 25%).
1894 : Electrification of Zurich trams.
Progress xx th century
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The magic of electricity into homes
- 1887 : François Borel , Swiss engineer builder, designed the first induction meter three phase.
- 1888 : Friedrich Wilhelm Schindler Jenny residing in Austria developed the first ironsupply.
- 1893 : Friedrich Wilhelm Schindler Jenny presents the first electric stove in the World Expo Chicago . First line phase transportation in the United States in California, 12 km , with 2.3 kV.
- 1896 : The first electric companies install meters single price to their clients.
- 1903 : The firm Landis & Gyr makes the first counter at double .
- 1911 : First 110 kV line, Lauchhammer of Riesa in Germany
- 1920 : The washing machines are equipped with an electric motor.
- 1920 : high electrical expansion , which allows network coverage in the major industrial countries.
Network development
In the 1920s , a rapid expansion of electricity was born in France, with an eightfold increase in the production of hydraulic power [unclear]. [ref. needed]
1923 : A 220 kV overhead line is put into operation for the first time in the United States.
1924 : Beginning of the construction of a north-south 110 kV overhead line between the German coal located near the Rhine to the alpine hydropower. The first section of Neuenahr Rheinau is expected to be supplied with 380 kV thereby further increasing the power available (partial commissioning in 1929 with 110 kV and 1930 kV with 220).
1932 : First 287 kV line, the United States of Boulder Dam to Los Angeles.
1937 : The first hydrogen-cooled turbo-generator is operated in the United States (100 MW).
1946: Nationalization of electricity and gas. EDF and GDF birth.
1960 : First 525 kV line in the USSR, Moscow to Volgograd.
1965 : First 735 kV line, in Quebec, in Montreal Manicouagan .
1965 : "Black-out" on November 9, New York remained without power 13 hours after the lightning had fallen on a line to 345 kV.
1967 : Connecting to the network of the first tidal power station in the world (240 MW) located on the estuary of the Rance ( France ).
1967 : The high-voltage network (380 kV) of France, the Federal Republic of Germany and Switzerland are interconnected for the first time in Laufenburg .
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